“And then I say [sʌuθ] weird”

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.font200[“And then I say .ipa[[sʌuθ]] weird”: .ipa[/aʊ/]-raising in Massachusetts]

.font120[Kamil Kaźmierski.ipa[/ˌkamil kaʑˈmjɛrski/]<br>
Faculty of English at AMU in Poznań]

Poznań Linguistic Meeting :: September 18th, 2021

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# Example

.font180["Well, I didn't find **out about** that until, like, recently."]

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# Canadian raising

.keyword[mouth] .ipa[/aʊ/] (and .keyword[price] .ipa[/aɪ/]) are:

.pull-left[
"High" before voiceless obstruents: 
- *shout*, *house*: .ipa[[ʌʊ]]
- .grey[*white*, *knife*: .ipa[[ɐɪ]]]

]

.pull-right[
"Low" elsewhere: 
- *how*, *found*, *houses*: .ipa[[ɑʊ]]
- .grey[*high*, *find*: .ipa[[aɪ]]]

]

<br>

.ref[Joos, M. 1942. "A phonological dilemma in Canadian English". *Language* 18, 141–144.]

---
# .ipa[/aɪ/]-raising in North America (Labov et al. 2006)

60 Hz difference in F1 of nuclei in pre-voiceless .ipa[/aɪ/] vs. elsewhere

.left-column[

- **Canada**
- the North
- the North Central Region
- Eastern New England
- Western Pennsylvania

]

.right-column[
<img src="media/anae_ay.jpg" width="65%" height="65%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

]

.footnote[.ref[Labov, W., Ash, S., & Boberg, C. (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Mouton de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110167467]]

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# .ipa[/aʊ/]-raising in North America

|Place                                    |Source                                                            |
|:----------------------------------------|:-----------------------------------------------------------------|
|Fredricksberg, VA                        |.ref[Primer (1890)]                                               |
|Coastal Maine and southern New Hampshire |.ref[Kurath & McDavid (1961)]                                     |
|Canada                                   |.ref[Joos (1942)]                                                 |
|"northern states"                        |.ref[Thomas (1961)]                                               |
|Martha's Vineyard, MA                    |.ref[Labov (1963)]                                                |
|Charlston, South Carolina                |.ref[Chambers (1973)]                                             |
|Minneapolis, MN & Rochester, NY          |.ref[Vance (1987)]                                                |
|Calais, ME                               |.ref[Miller (1989)]                                               |
|Ann Arbor, MI                            |.ref[Dailey-O'Cain (1997)]                                        |
|"Northern parts of Midwest and West"     |.ref[Gordon (2004)]                                               |
|Vermont                                  |.ref[Roberts] ([2007](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394507070068)) |

---
# Types of conditioning of raising

.pull-left[
# .ipa[/aɪ/]
Voice-based (Canada, .ref[Joos (1942)]): 
- *sight* .ipa[[ʌi]] (raised)
- *side* .ipa[[aɪ]] (not raised)
]

.pull-right[
# .ipa[/aʊ/]

Voice-based (Canada, .ref[Joos (1942)]): 
- *shout* .ipa[[ʌu]] (raised)
- *found* .ipa[[aʊ]] (not raised)

<hr>

**Context-free** (e.g. Vermont, .ref[Roberts] ([2007](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954394507070068))):
- *about* .ipa[[ʌu]] 
- *found* .ipa[[ʌu]]
- *how* .ipa[[ʌu]]
]

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# Many distinct New England features (e.g. r-lessness, PALM and START fronting, NORTH/FORCE distinction, MARY/MARRY/MERRY distinction) are receding (Stanford 2019).

# How does .ipa[/aʊ/]-raising fit into this picture?

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# Some existing research on .ipa[/aʊ/]-raising in New England

.font140[

- Labov .ref[(1963)]
  - Martha's Vineyard in Eastern Massachusetts
  - Some speakers with context-free raising, some voice-based (with exceptions)
  - Raising as local identity marker (island-oriented fishermen)
  - Described as a **new** development

- Boberg .ref[(2010)] (4 speakers)
  - eastern New England
  - 110Hz voicing-based difference in F1 of .ipa[/aʊ/]
]

.footnote[
- .ref[Labov, W. (1963). The social motivation of a sound change. *Word*, 19(3), 273–309.]
- .ref[Boberg, C. (2011). *The English Language in Canada*. Cambridge University Press.]
]

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# Kim et al. (2019) all of New England (626 spkrs)

.pull-left[

### .ipa[/aɪ/] raising

]

.pull-right[

### No .ipa[/aʊ/] raising

]

.ref[Kim, C., Reddy, S., Stanford, J. N., Wyschogrod, E., & Grieve, J. (2019). Bring on the Crowd! Using Online Audio Crowd-Sourcing for Large-Scale New England Dialectology and Acoustic Sociophonetics. *American Speech*, 94(2), 151–194. https://doi.org/10.1215/00031283-7251252]

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# Kim et al. (2019) all of New England

## Context-free .ipa[/aʊ/] raising?

---
# New England's Hub: Eastern Massachusetts

.pull-left[
<img src="https://i.redd.it/7y1te7aohds51.jpg" width="80%" height="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.pull-right[
<img src="https://popdensitymap.ucoz.ru/9.Population_density-administrative_boundaries-map.png" width="80%" height="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" /><img src="https://geology.com/state-map/maps/massachusetts-road-map.gif" width="80%" height="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

]

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# Stanford's (2019) Hub study

.left-column[

- ".ipa[/aʊ/] tends to be **fronted** [my emphasis] in the not voiceless environment"
- "this may be a topic for future study"

]

.right-column[

<img src="media/dneed_hub_raising.png" width="70%" height="70%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.footnote[.ref[Stanford, J. (2019). [*New England English: Large-scale acoustic sociophonetics and dialectology*](https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190625658.001.0001/oso-9780190625658). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.]]

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# Research questions

1. Is .ipa[/aʊ/] raising, backing, or both?
1. How is .ipa[/aʊ/] affected by voicing of following sound?    
1. Are speakers aware of variation in .ipa[/aʊ/]?

---
# Speakers

### 20 women (age range: [18, 29], median: 20)
 
<img src="media/participants.png" width="65%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

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# Method

- One-hour-long interviews (phonetics lab at UMass, Amherst)
- Automatic Speech Recognition with [WebMAUS](https://clarin.phonetik.uni-muenchen.de/BASWebServices/interface)
- Force-alignment with FAVE-Align [(Rosenfelder et al. 2014)](https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.9846)
  - Recordings and TextGrids for 17 spkrs available at: [osf.io/mfu5y](https://osf.io/mfu5y)
- Automatic acoustic measurements with FAVE-Extract [(Rosenfelder et al. 2014)](https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.98460)
  - Single-point measurements: .ipa[/aɪ/]: at F1 maximum; .ipa[/aʊ/]: halfway between F1 maximum and onset
  - Incremental measurements, in steps of 15% of a vowel's duration
- Analyzed in .ref[<svg aria-hidden="true" role="img" viewBox="0 0 581 512" style="height:1em;width:1.13em;vertical-align:-0.125em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;font-size:inherit;fill:currentColor;overflow:visible;position:relative;"><path d="M581 226.6C581 119.1 450.9 32 290.5 32S0 119.1 0 226.6C0 322.4 103.3 402 239.4 418.1V480h99.1v-61.5c24.3-2.7 47.6-7.4 69.4-13.9L448 480h112l-67.4-113.7c54.5-35.4 88.4-84.9 88.4-139.7zm-466.8 14.5c0-73.5 98.9-133 220.8-133s211.9 40.7 211.9 133c0 50.1-26.5 85-70.3 106.4-2.4-1.6-4.7-2.9-6.4-3.7-10.2-5.2-27.8-10.5-27.8-10.5s86.6-6.4 86.6-92.7-90.6-87.9-90.6-87.9h-199V361c-74.1-21.5-125.2-67.1-125.2-119.9zm225.1 38.3v-55.6c57.8 0 87.8-6.8 87.8 27.3 0 36.5-38.2 28.3-87.8 28.3zm-.9 72.5H365c10.8 0 18.9 11.7 24 19.2-16.1 1.9-33 2.8-50.6 2.9v-22.1z"/></svg>] [(R Core Team 2021)](https://www.r-project.org/)
- Datasets presented here:
  - .ipa[/aɪ/]: 15,296 tokens; 477 word types
  - .ipa[/aʊ/]: 2,648 tokens; 161 word types
  - only vowels at least 50ms long included

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# Results 1: Single-point measurements

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# Voiced-based allophony

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.pull-left[

## Voice-based .ipa[/aɪ/] raising

]

.pull-right[

## No voice-based .ipa[/aʊ/] raising

<img src="media/means_aw.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

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.pull-left[

## Voice-based .ipa[/aɪ/] raising

]

.pull-right[

## Voice-based .ipa[/aʊ/] .ref[**backing**]

<img src="media/means_aw_f2.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

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.pull-left[

## Voice-based .ipa[/aʊ/] .ref[**backing**]

]

.pull-right[

## Voice-based .ipa[/aʊ/] .ref[**backing**]

<img src="media/means_aw_f2.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

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# Context-free raising

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# Context-free raising of .ipa[/aʊ/] with regard to what?

.pull-left[

]

.pull-right[
<img src="media/vowel_chart_ae.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

]

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# Context-free raising of .ipa[/aʊ/] with regard to TRAP

.pull-left[
<img src="media/wholesale_raising.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

.pull-right[
<img src="media/vowel_chart_ae.png" width="90%" height="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />

]

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# Single-point measurements  - summary of results:

.font200[
- .ipa[/aʊ/] is backed, but not raised before voiceless obstruents
- .ipa[/aʊ/] is raised context-free
- ⚠ only the nucleus considered ⚠
]
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# Results 2: Dynamic aspects of .ipa[/aʊ/]

---
# Generalized Additive Modeling (GAM)

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# Generalized Additive Modeling (GAM)

<img src="media/gams_illustration_2.png" width="80%" height="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
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# Generalized Additive Modeling (GAM)

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# Below or above the level of consciousness?

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# Are speakers aware of .ipa[/aʊ/]?

.pull-left[

## Yes?

<audio id = "player" src="media/int_03_zoom_uac2_i_say_south_weird.wav" controls preload></audio> .font140["And then I say **South** weird [...]"]

<audio id = "player" src="media/int_05_zoom_uac2_I_say_outfit.wav" controls preload></audio> .font140["I say **outfit** [...]"]
   
<audio id = "player" src="media/int_24_zoom_uac2_raw_I_don_t_go_around_saying_about.wav" controls preload></audio>  .font140["I say **about** [...]"]

]

.pull-right[

## No?

<audio id = "player" src="media/int_06_zoom_uac2_around_my_house.wav" controls preload></audio> .font140[" [...] I'll say things around my **house**"]

<audio id = "player" src="media/int_02_zoom_uac2_about_the_roundabout.wav" controls preload></audio> .font140["He would talk **about** [...] the **roundabout** [...]"]
]

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# Attitude to Eastern Massachusetts

.pull-left[

### Negative <audio id = "player" src="media/int_08_zoom_uac2_boston_accent_is_scary.wav" controls preload></audio>

- "These people are scary!"

]

.pull-right[
### Positive <audio id = "player" src="media/int_05_zoom_uac2_wicked_prepared.wav" controls preload></audio>
  
- "[...] he came to class, like, **wicked** prepared [...]"

<img src="media/speaker_05.png" width="80%" height="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

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# Conclusions

- Regardless of environment:
  - nucleus of .ipa[/aʊ/] is raised with regard to the lowest vowel (i.e. to .ipa[/æ/])

- Before voiceless obstruents: 
	- **nucleus** of .ipa[/aʊ/] is backed
	- **off-glide** of .ipa[/aʊ/] is raised
  
- Realization of .ipa[/aʊ/] may carry indexical meaning

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# Thank you!

<br>

.pull-left[

**Regardless of environment**:

👉 nucleus of .ipa[/aʊ/] is raised

**Before voiceless obstruents**:

👉 nucleus of .ipa[/aʊ/] is backed

👉 off-glide of .ipa[/aʊ/] is raised
  
]

.pull-right[

]

<hr>

.font60[
This research was supported by a Fulbright Commission grant

Recordings and Textgrids (17 spkrs): [osf.io/mfu5y](https://osf.io/mfu5y)
]